Early Heresies: Montanism
Montanism in the Second Century:
“I am the Lord God, the almighty, dwelling in man.”[1] These shocking words were spoken by Montanus of Phrygia (modern-day Turkey) in the mid-second century, A.D. Along with two disciples, Priscilla and Maximilla, Montanus claimed to be the fulfilment of Christ’s prophecy of the coming of the Paraclete (John 16:7-11). Montanus enjoyed spectacular popularity, even winning the church father Tertullian as one of his disciples. Two things stand out about the teachings of Montanus:
- Montanus emphasized ongoing, direct special revelation by the Holy Spirit.
Montanus and his followers claimed charismatic gifts of the Spirit – “visions…dreams, speaking in tongues, [and] prophetic utterances.”[2] Montanus either saw himself as the Paraclete’s mouthpiece, or perhaps even an incarnation of the Paraclete.[3]
Many of these prophecies dealt with an expectation that Christ’s return was imminent. Maximilla predicted, “After me will be no prophet more, but the consummation.”[4] Similarly, Priscilla claimed that Christ revealed to her that “this place [Phrygia] is holy and that here Jerusalem will descend from heaven.”[5]
2. Montanus emphasized severe asceticism and rigorous discipline.
The teaching of Montanus and his disciples was focused on rigorous conduct, more than theological innovation. William Cunningham summarizes the “ethical” teachings of the Montanists: they imposed fasts at stated seasons, they forbid their followers to flee from persecution, and they refused to readmit into their fellowship or accept the repentance of those who had fallen into serious sins.[6]
It was this emphasis on conduct that seems to have attracted the most famous disciple of Montanus to this new teaching. Tertullian praised this new teaching as the perfection of God’s moral desires for his people[7]
The Church’s Response:
Despite extra-biblical revelation and prohibitions, it is also noteworthy, if somewhat perplexing, that Montanus affirmed many core tenants of the Christian faith. One of the most important critics of Montanism was Epiphanius, the 4th c. Bishop of Salamis. Yet even he acknowledged, “These [Montanists]…accept every Scripture of the old and New Testaments and affirm the resurrection of the dead as well….They agree with the holy catholic church about the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.”[8]
Some in the church advised a more moderate approach to the Montanists. They viewed the Montanists as erring brothers, not dangerous wolves. Needham writes, “Irenaeus [of Lyon]… advised [the] bishop…of Rome…to take a moderate, gentle attitude towards Montanists, to try to keep them within the Church.”[9]
The church would eventually declare Montanism as a heresy that put one outside the visible church at the Council of Constantinople (381). However, the reason given was that Montanists were anti-trinitarian – a charge that does not appear to be universally true.[10]
Needham suggests several reasons why the church may have labeled Montanism as heretical: (1) suspicion of some of the “enthusiasm” associated with their prophesies; (2) the fact that their prophecies divided the church, rather than uniting it; (3) many of their prophecies failing to come true, (4) Montanists’ condemnation of other Christians, and (5) the fact that some of their followers did fall into trinitarian heresies.[11]
Montanism Today:
Montanism is alive today, albeit under a different name. The Pentecostal and Charismatic movement is very much a spiritual descendant of Montanism. The emphasis on ongoing, miraculous gifts and revelations of the Spirit is consistent between the two. The “Jesus Calling” phenomenon of the early 2000s is also related[12]: they share a dangerous tendency to look for the voice of the Savior outside of the Savior’s inscripturated word to his people.
With Montanism, past and present, ambiguities remain. Was it a damnable heresy, or was it dangerous heterodoxy? These debates will likely continue.[13]
Yet for those of us who read about Montanism in the past, or interact with Pentecostals and their insistence on ongoing revelation in the present, our response should be that of another early church critic of Montanism, Jerome. When he corresponded with a young woman who was being urged to convert to Montanism, he appealed to the word of God. After articulating various errors of the Montanists, Jerome pointed her back to Scripture as her rock: “You are well acquainted with the Scriptures,” he said at the end of his letter.[14]
That is where we need to be in the church. We need to be so “well acquainted with the Scriptures” and so familiar with hearing the voice of our Shepherd speaking in Scripture (John 10:27), that we’ll listen to his voice only, and not those falsely claiming to speak for him.
[1] Montanus, cited by Epiphanius in The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis: Books II and III, trans. Frank Williams (Leiden: Brill, 1987), 16.
[2] Nick Needham, 2000 Years of Christ’s Power, vol. 1, The Age of the Early Church Fathers, (Ross-shire: Christian Focus, 2016), 113.
[3] Richard Gamble, The Whole Counsel of God, vol. 3: God’s People in the Western World (Philipsburg: P&R, 2022), 55.
[4] Maximilla, cited by Epiphanius in The Panarion, 7.
[5] Priscilla, cited by Epiphanius in The Panarion, 21.
[6] William Cunningham, Historical Theology (Edinburgh: Banner of Truth, 1960), 1:163.
[7] Tertullian, “On the Veiling of Virgins” in Ante-Nicene Fathers: The Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325, vol. 4, ed. Cleveland Cox et al., trans. Sydney Thelwall (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1885), 27-28.
[8] Epiphanius, The Panarion, 6.
[9] Nick Needham, Early Church Fathers, 114.
[10] Canon 7, “The Canons of the Council of Constantinople (381),” Early Church Texts, https://earlychurchtexts.com/public/constantinople_canons.htm(Accessed Feb. 26, 2026).
[11] Needham, Early Church Fathers,117-119.
[12] Sarah Young, Jesus Calling (New York: Harper Collins, 2004).
[13] David F. Wright is sympathetic to Montanism in his very helpful overview, “Why Were the Montanists Condemned?” Themelios, 2, no. 1 (Sep. 1976): 15-22. Cunningham, while highly critical of Montanism, admits, “Many [Montanists], there is reason to think, were possessed of genuine piety” in Historical Theology, 1:161.
[14] Jerome, “Letter XLI, To Marcella,” in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, vol 7, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (New York: The Christian Literature Company: 1893), 55.
